Planet Python

Last update: April 25, 2025 07:43 PM UTC

April 25, 2025

Test and Code

The role of AI in software testing - Anthony Shaw

AI is helping people write code.  
Tests are one of those things that some people don't like to write.   

Can AI play a role in creating automated software tests?  
Well, yes. But it's a nuanced yes.  

Anthony Shaw comes on the show to discuss the topic and try to get AI to write some test for my very own cards project.

We discuss:

• The promise of AI writing your tests for you
• Downsides to not writing tests yourself
• Bad ways to generate tests
• Good ways to ask AI for help in writing tests
• Tricks to get better results while using copilot and other AI tools

Links:

• The cards project
• A video version of this discussion: Should AI write tests?

Sponsored by: 

• Porkbun -- named the #1 domain registrar by USA Today from 2023 to 2025!
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Learn pytest: 

• The Complete pytest course is now a bundle, with each part available separately.
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  • Using pytest with Projects has lots of "when you need it" sections like debugging failed tests, mocking, testing strategy, and CI
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• Whether you need to get started with pytest today, or want to power up your pytest skills, PythonTest has a course for you.

April 25, 2025 05:41 PM UTC

Everyday Superpowers

Event Sourcing: Reactivity Without the React Overhead

StatusEvent = typing.Union[
  DocumentCreated, 
  Step1Finished, 
  Step1Failed, 
  ...
]

def on_status_updates(event: StatusEvent):
	if isinstance(event, DocumentCreated):
		...
	elif isinstance(event, Step1Finished):
	    db.document(event.document_id).update({
		    ‘percent_done’: 25,
		    ‘last_updated’: event.stored_at,
	    })
	    ...

def on_database_update(changes):
    now = datetime.now(tz=UTC)
    template = templates.template('document_status_row.jinja')
    return HTTPStream(
        template.render_async(
            context=(document=changes, last_updated=now)
        )
    )

def document_just_completed_all_steps(event_names: list[DomainEvent]) -> bool:
    return (
        event_names.count('Step4Finished') == 1 and
        event_names[-1].name == 'Step4Finished'
    )

def should_notify(event: DomainEvent, container: svcs.Container) -> bool:
    event_store = container.get(EventStore)
    event_names = [
        event.name for event 
        in event_store.get_event_stream(event.entity_id)
    ]
    if document_just_completed_all_steps(event_names):
        return True
    return did_document_fail_retry_for_the_first_time(event_names)

April 25, 2025 04:38 PM UTC

Awesome Python Applications

DollarDollar Bill Y'all

April 25, 2025 10:35 AM UTC

Beaver Habits

April 25, 2025 10:31 AM UTC

aider

April 25, 2025 10:31 AM UTC

Python GUIs

Building a Currency Converter Application using Tkinter — Convert between currencies with ease

In this tutorial, you'll create a currency converter application with Python and Tkinter. The app will allow the users to select the source currency, choose the target currency, and input the amount to convert. The application will use real-time exchange rates to convert from the source to target currency, providing accurate and up-to-date conversions.

FIXME: Add the demo video here... Currency converter demo

Through this project you'll gain hands-on experience working with Tkinter's GUI elements, handling user input, and interacting with an external API. By the end of the tutorial, you'll have a functional currency converter app and have learnt practical skills you can apply to your own Python & Tkinter projects.

Setting Up the Environment

We'll start by setting up a working environment for the project. We are using Tkinter for this project, which is included by default in most Python installations, so we don't need to install that.

If you're on Linux you may need to install it. See the Linux Tkinter installation instructions.

We'll also be using the requests library to make HTTP requests to the Exchange Rate API which we can install from PyPi using pip. We also want to create a folder to hold our project files including our Python script and images.

Below are the instructions to create a folder for our project called currency_converter, set up a virtual environment, activate it and install requests into that environment.

$ mkdir currency_converter/
$ cd currency_converter
$ python -m venv venv
$ source venv/bin/activate
(venv)$ pip install requests

> mkdir currency_converter/
> cd currency_converter
> python -m venv venv
> venv\Scripts\activate.bat
(venv)> pip install requests

$ mkdir currency_converter/
$ cd currency_converter
$ python -m venv venv
$ source venv/bin/activate
(venv)$ pip install requests

We will use the free Exchange Rate API to access real-time exchange rate data. It offers various endpoints that allow users to retrieve exchange rate information for different currency pairs, convert currency amounts from one currency to another, and perform other related operations. You'll have to sign up on the API page to be able to run the app.

Setting Up the Project Structure

Now that we've created the virtual environment and installed the required third-party libraries, we can set up the project structure.

Add a folder named images to the root of your project.

The images/ subfolder is where we will place the app's logo. Our application code will go in the root folder, named currency_converter.py.

currency_converter/
&boxv
&boxvr&boxh&boxh images/
&boxv   &boxur&boxh&boxh logo.png
&boxv
&boxur&boxh&boxh currency_converter.py

Getting Started with our Application

Now we have the project folder setup and requirements installed, we can start building our app. Create a new file called currency_converter.py at the root of the project folder and open this in your editor.

We'll start by adding the imports we need for our project, and building a basic window which will hold our application UI.

import os
import sys
import tkinter as tk
import tkinter.ttk as ttk
from tkinter import messagebox

import requests

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    def __init__(self):
        super().__init__()
        self.geometry("500x450+300+150")
        self.title("Currency Converter")
        self.resizable(width=0, height=0)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    app = CurrencyConverterApp()
    app.mainloop()

In the above code, we import the os and sys modules from the Python standard library. Then, we import the tkinter package as tk. This shorthand is typically used with Tkinter to save repeatedly typing the full name. We also import the tkinter.ttk package which gives us access to Tkinter's themed widgets, which looker nicer than the defaults. We also import Tkinter's messagebox module for creating pop up dialogs. Finally, we import the requests library to make HTTP requests to the API so that we can get up-to-date exchange rates and convert currencies.

We start by creating the application's root window, which in Tkinter also works as the application container. To do this we create a class called CurrencyConverterApp, which inherits from the tk.Tk class. On this class we add a custom __init__() method, which is called to initialize the object, where we set up the window's attributes.

To set the window's width, height, and position, we use the geometry() method. For the window's title, we use title(). Finally, we use resizable() with the width and height set to 0 to make the window unresizable.

With the main window class created, we then add the code to instantiate the class -- creating an instance of the CurrencyConverterApp -- and start up the main loop for the application. The main loop is the event loop which handles user input events from the keyboard and mouse and passes them to the widgets.

When you run this code, you see the following window on your screen:

Currency converter's main window

There's not much to see for now: our currency converter doesn't have a functional GUI. It's just a plain window with an appropriate title and size.

Now let's create the app's GUI.

Creating the Currency Converter's GUI

To create the app's GUI, let's begin adding the widgets to the main window. We will add the following widgets:

• The app's logo
• Two labels and two associated combo boxes for selecting the source and target currency
• A label for the amount to convert and an associated entry field
• A label for displaying the conversion results
• A button to run the conversion

First lets add the logo to our application.

We'll be including small snippets of the code as we build it. But the full code is shown below, to make sure you don't get mixed up.

# ...

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    # ...

    def build_gui(self):
        self.logo = tk.PhotoImage(file="images/logo.png")
        tk.Label(self, image=self.logo).pack()

In this code snippet, we first create build_gui() method to define all the widgets we need in our GUI. Inside the method, we load an image using the tk.PhotoImage() class.

Then, we create a label to display the image using the ttk.Label() class, which takes self and image as arguments. Finally, we position the label in the main window using the pack() method, which is a geometry manager in Tkinter.

To use the build_gui() method, we need to call it. To do this, add the call to self.build_gui() to the end of the __init__() method. That gives us the following code.

import os
import sys
import tkinter as tk
import tkinter.ttk as ttk
from tkinter import messagebox

import requests

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    def __init__(self):
        super().__init__()
        self.geometry("500x450+300+150")
        self.title("Currency Converter")
        self.resizable(width=0, height=0)

    def build_gui(self):
        self.logo = tk.PhotoImage(file="images/logo.png")
        tk.Label(self, image=self.logo).pack()
        self.build_gui()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    app = CurrencyConverterApp()
    app.mainloop()

Go ahead and run the app. You'll get an output like the following:

Currency converter window with logo

Now we can see something! We'll continue adding widgets to build up our UI.First, we will create a frame to position the widgets. Below the logo code we added in to the build_gui() method, add a frame:

# ...

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    # ...

    def build_gui(self):
        self.logo = tk.PhotoImage(file="images/logo.png")
        tk.Label(self, image=self.logo).pack()
        frame = tk.Frame(self)
        frame.pack()

Here, we create a frame using the tk.Frame class. It takes self as an argument because the current window is the frame's parent. To position the frame inside the main window, we use the pack() method.

With the frame in place, we can add some more widgets. Below is the code for populating the frame:

# ...

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    # ...

    def build_gui(self):
        # ...

        from_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="From:")
        from_label.grid(row=0, column=0, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        to_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="To:")
        to_label.grid(row=0, column=1, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        self.from_combo = ttk.Combobox(frame)
        self.from_combo.grid(row=1, column=0, padx=5, pady=5)

        self.to_combo = ttk.Combobox(frame)
        self.to_combo.grid(row=1, column=1, padx=5, pady=5)

In this code, we create two labels using the ttk.Label() class. We position them using the grid() method. Then, we create the two combo boxes using the ttk.Combobox() class, and position them both in the frame using the grid() method again.

Note that we've positioned the labels in the first row of the frame while the combo boxes are in the second row. The GUI now will look something like this:

Currency converter's GUI

Great! Your app's GUI now has the widgets for selecting the source and target currencies. Let's now add the last four widgets. Below is the code for this:

# ...

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    # ...

    def build_gui(self):
        # ...

        amount_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="Amount:")
        amount_label.grid(row=2, column=0, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        self.amount_entry = ttk.Entry(frame)
        self.amount_entry.insert(0, "1.00")
        self.amount_entry.grid(
            row=3, column=0, columnspan=2, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W + tk.E
        )

        self.result_label = ttk.Label(font=("Arial", 20, "bold"))
        self.result_label.pack()

        convert_button = ttk.Button(self, text="Convert", width=20)
        convert_button.pack()

In this code snippet, we add two labels using the ttk.Label() class as usual. Then, we create the entry field using the ttk.Entry() class. Next, we add the Convert button using the ttk.Button() class. All these widgets must go inside the frame object.

Note that we've positioned the amount_label and the amount_entry using the grid() method. In contrast, we've used the pack() method to place the result_label and convert_button.

The complete current code is shown below.

import os
import sys
import tkinter as tk
import tkinter.ttk as ttk
from tkinter import messagebox

import requests

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    def __init__(self):
        super().__init__()
        self.geometry("500x450+300+150")
        self.title("Currency Converter")
        self.resizable(width=0, height=0)
        self.build_gui()

    def build_gui(self):
        self.logo = tk.PhotoImage(file="images/logo.png")
        tk.Label(self, image=self.logo).pack()
        frame = tk.Frame(self)
        frame.pack()

        from_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="From:")
        from_label.grid(row=0, column=0, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        to_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="To:")
        to_label.grid(row=0, column=1, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        self.from_combo = ttk.Combobox(frame)
        self.from_combo.grid(row=1, column=0, padx=5, pady=5)

        self.to_combo = ttk.Combobox(frame)
        self.to_combo.grid(row=1, column=1, padx=5, pady=5)

        amount_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="Amount:")
        amount_label.grid(row=2, column=0, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        self.amount_entry = ttk.Entry(frame)
        self.amount_entry.insert(0, "1.00")
        self.amount_entry.grid(
            row=3, column=0, columnspan=2, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W + tk.E
        )

        self.result_label = ttk.Label(font=("Arial", 20, "bold"))
        self.result_label.pack()

        convert_button = ttk.Button(self, text="Convert", width=20)
        convert_button.pack()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    app = CurrencyConverterApp()
    app.mainloop()

Run this and you'll see the following window.

Currency converter's GUI

This is looking good now. The app's GUI is functionally complete. Even though you can't see the label showing the conversion result, this label is there and will be visible once we add something to it.

Implementing the Convert Currency Functionality

As mentioned, we will be using the Exchange Rate API to get our live currency data. To request data from the the API we need an API key. You can get one by signing up and creating an account. This is free if you only need daily rates (fine for our app).

Exchange Rate API Sign-up Page

If you accept the terms, you will receive your API key via the email address you provided, or you can go to the dashboard, where you will see your API key as follows:

Exchange Rate API Key

Now that we have the API key, let's implement the currency conversion functionality. First, we will add the API key as an environment variable.

On Windows, open the terminal as an administrator and run the command below. Note that you must replace the "your_api_key" part with the actual API key:

> setx API_KEY "your_api_key"

PS> setx API_KEY "your_api_key"

$ export API_KEY="your_api_key"

$ export API_KEY="your_api_key"

Now, get back to your code editor. Below the imports, paste the following code:

# ...
import requests

API_KEY = os.getenv("API_KEY")
if API_KEY is None:
    messagebox.showerror(
        "API Key Error", "API_KEY environment variable is not set."
    )
    sys.exit(1)

API_URL = f"https://v6.exchangerate-api.com/v6/{API_KEY}/"

# ...

Here, we retrieve the API key from the environment variable (that we just set) using the os.getenv() function. Using an if statement, we check whether the key was set. If not, we issue an error message and terminate the app's execution using the sys.exit() function. Then, we set up the URL to get the latest currencies.

Run the code now -- in the same shell where you set the environment variable. If you see the error dialog then you know that the environment variable has not been set -- check the instructions again, and make sure the variable is set correctly in the shell where you are running the code. If you see the application as normal, then everything is good!

The error shown when API_KEY is not set correctly in the environment.

Interacting with the API

Now we have the API_KEY set up correctly we move on to interacting with the API itself. To do this we will create a method for getting all the currencies. Let's call it get_currencies(). Below the build_gui() method, add this new method:

# ...

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    # ...

    def build_gui(self):
        # ...

    def get_currencies(self):
        response = requests.get(f"{API_URL}/latest/USD")
        data = response.json()
        return list(data["conversion_rates"])

The method above sends a GET request to the given URL. We convert the received JSON response to Python objects using the json() method. Finally, we convert the conversion rates that come in the response to a Python list.

We can populate the two combo boxes using the get_currencies() method. Add the following code to the bottom of the build_gui method.

# ...

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    # ...

    def build_gui(self):
        # ...

        currencies = self.get_currencies()

        self.from_combo["values"] = currencies
        self.from_combo.current(0)

        self.to_combo["values"] = currencies
        self.to_combo.current(0)

This calls the get_currencies method to get the available currencies, and then populates the two combo boxes with the returned list.

If you run the application now, you'll see that the combo-boxes now contain the currencies returned from the API. Note that we're setting the default item to USD, which is the first currency in the list.

Populating the From currency combo box

Populating the To currency combo box

Handling the Currency Conversion

The final step is to implement the actual currency conversion, using the values returned from the API. To do this we will create a method to handle this. Add new method called convert() to the bottom of our CurrencyConverterApp class.

# ...

class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    # ...

    def convert(self):
        src = self.from_combo.get()
        dest = self.to_combo.get()
        amount = self.amount_entry.get()
        response = requests.get(f"{API_URL}/pair/{src}/{dest}/{amount}").json()
        result = response["conversion_result"]
        self.result_label.config(text=f"{amount} {src} = {result} {dest}")

In the first three lines, we get input data from the from_combo and to_combo combo boxes and the amount_entry field using the get() method of each widget. The from_combo combo box data is named src, the to_combo combo box data is named dest, and the amount_entry field data is named amount.

To get the conversion between currencies, we make a GET request to the API using a URL constructed using the input data. The result returned from the API is again in JSON format, which we convert to a Python dictionary by calling .json(). We take the "conversion_result" from the response and use this to update the result label with the conversion result.

The final step is to hook our convert() method up to a button so we can trigger it. To do this, we will add the command argument to the button's definition. The value for this argument will be assigned the convert method object without the parentheses.

Here's how the button code will look after the update:

convert_button = ttk.Button(
            self,
            text="Convert",
            width=20,
            command=self.convert,
        )

This code binds the button to the convert() method. Now, when you click the Convert button, this method will run.

That's it! With these final touches, your currency converter application is complete. The full final code is shown below.

import os
import sys
import tkinter as tk
import tkinter.ttk as ttk
from tkinter import messagebox

import requests

API_KEY = os.getenv("API_KEY")
if API_KEY is None:
    messagebox.showerror("API Key Error", "API_KEY environment variable is not set.")
    sys.exit(1)

API_URL = f"https://v6.exchangerate-api.com/v6/{API_KEY}/"


class CurrencyConverterApp(tk.Tk):
    def __init__(self):
        super().__init__()
        self.geometry("500x450+300+150")
        self.title("Currency Converter")
        self.resizable(width=0, height=0)
        self.build_gui()

    def build_gui(self):
        self.logo = tk.PhotoImage(file="images/logo.png")
        tk.Label(self, image=self.logo).pack()
        frame = tk.Frame(self)
        frame.pack()

        from_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="From:")
        from_label.grid(row=0, column=0, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        to_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="To:")
        to_label.grid(row=0, column=1, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        self.from_combo = ttk.Combobox(frame)
        self.from_combo.grid(row=1, column=0, padx=5, pady=5)

        self.to_combo = ttk.Combobox(frame)
        self.to_combo.grid(row=1, column=1, padx=5, pady=5)

        amount_label = ttk.Label(frame, text="Amount:")
        amount_label.grid(row=2, column=0, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W)

        self.amount_entry = ttk.Entry(frame)
        self.amount_entry.insert(0, "1.00")
        self.amount_entry.grid(
            row=3, column=0, columnspan=2, padx=5, pady=5, sticky=tk.W + tk.E
        )

        self.result_label = ttk.Label(font=("Arial", 20, "bold"))
        self.result_label.pack()

        convert_button = ttk.Button(
            self, text="Convert", width=20, command=self.convert
        )
        convert_button.pack()

        currencies = self.get_currencies()

        self.from_combo["values"] = currencies
        self.from_combo.current(0)

        self.to_combo["values"] = currencies
        self.to_combo.current(0)

    def get_currencies(self):
        response = requests.get(f"{API_URL}/latest/USD")
        data = response.json()
        return list(data["conversion_rates"])

    def convert(self):
        src = self.from_combo.get()
        dest = self.to_combo.get()
        amount = self.amount_entry.get()
        response = requests.get(f"{API_URL}/pair/{src}/{dest}/{amount}").json()
        result = response["conversion_result"]
        self.result_label.config(text=f"{amount} {src} = {result} {dest}")


if __name__ == "__main__":
    app = CurrencyConverterApp()
    app.mainloop()

Run the final code and you will be able to convert amounts between any of the supported currencies. For example, select USD and EUR in the from and to combo boxes and enter a conversion amount of 100. The application will call the API and update the label with the result of the conversion, like follows:

Running currency converter app

Conclusion

Well done! You've built a functional currency converter application with Python & Tkinter. You've learnt the basics of building up a UI using Tkinter's widgets and layouts, how to use APIs to fill widgets with values and perform operations in response to user input.

If you want to take it further, think about some ways that you could improve the usability or extend the functionality of this application:

• Do you have some conversions you do regularly? Add a way to quickly apply "favorite" currency conversions to the UI.
• Add buttons to set standard amounts (10, 100, 1000) for conversion.
• Use multiple API requests to show historic values (1 day ago, 1 week ago, 1 year ago) using the historic data API.

See if you can add these yourself! If you want to go further with Tkinter, take a look at our complete TKinter tutorial.

April 25, 2025 06:00 AM UTC

April 24, 2025

Everyday Superpowers

Supercharge Your Enums: Cleaner Code with Hidden Features

from enum import Enum

class TaskStatus(Enum):  
    PENDING = 'pending'  
    IN_PROGRESS = 'in_progress'  
    COMPLETED = 'completed'  
    CANCELLED = 'cancelled'

def change_task_status(task_id: str, status: str):  
    task = database.get_task_by_id(task_id)  
    for member in TaskStatus:  
        if member.value == status:  
            task.status = member  
            database.update_task(task)

>>> TaskStatus('pending')
<TaskStatus.PENDING: 'pending'>

def change_task_status(task_id: str, status: str):  
    task = database.get_task_by_id(task_id)  
    task.status = TaskStatus(status)  
    database.update_task(task)

STATUS_TO_DESCRIPTION_MAP = {  
    TaskStatus.PENDING: "Task is pending",  
    TaskStatus.IN_PROGRESS: "Task is in progress",  
    TaskStatus.COMPLETED: "Task is completed",  
    TaskStatus.CANCELLED: "Task is cancelled"  
}

class TaskStatus(Enum):  
    PENDING = "pending", 'Task is pending'  
    IN_PROGRESS = "in_progress", 'Task is in progress'  
    COMPLETED = "completed", 'Task is completed'  
    CANCELLED = "cancelled", 'Task is cancelled' 
 
    def __new__(cls, value, description):  
        obj = object.__new__(cls)  
        obj._value_ = value  
        obj.description = description  
        return obj

>>> completed = TaskStatus.COMPLETED
>>> completed.value
'completed'
>>> completed.description
'Task is completed'
>>> completed.name
'COMPLETED'

class TaskStatus(Enum):  
    PENDING = "pending", "Task is pending"  
    IN_PROGRESS = "in_progress", "Task is in progress"  
    COMPLETED = "completed", "Task is completed"  
    CANCELLED = "cancelled", "Task is cancelled"  
  
    def __new__(cls, value, description):  
        ...
  
    @property  
    def expected_next_status(self):  
        if self == TaskStatus.PENDING:  
            return TaskStatus.IN_PROGRESS  
        elif self == TaskStatus.IN_PROGRESS:  
            return TaskStatus.COMPLETED  
        else:  # Task is completed or cancelled  
            return self

>>> TaskStatus.PENDING.expected_next_status
<TaskStatus.IN_PROGRESS: 'in_progress'>
>>> TaskStatus.CANCELLED.expected_next_status
<TaskStatus.CANCELLED: 'cancelled'>

def task_details(task_id: str):  
    task = database.get_task_by_id(task_id)  
    return {  
        "id": task.id,  
        "title": task.title,  
        "status": task.status.value,  
        "expected_next_status": task.status.expected_next_status.value,  
    }

>>> task_details("task_id_123")
{
  'id': 'task_id_123', 
  'title': 'Sample Task', 
  'status': 'pending', 
  'expected_next_status': 'in_progress'
}

April 24, 2025 07:38 PM UTC

Python Software Foundation

2025 PSF Board Election Schedule Change

Starting this year, the PSF Board Election will be held a couple of months later in the year than in years prior. The nomination period through the end of the vote will run around the August to September time frame. This is due to several factors:

• Planning the Board election while organizing PyCon US is a strain on both PSF Staff and Board Members who assist with the election.
• We received feedback that nominees would appreciate more time between the nomination cutoff and the start of the vote so that they can campaign.
• There are several US holidays in June and July (and PyCon US recovery!), which means PSF Staff will intermittently be out of the office. We want to ensure we are ready and available to assist with memberships, election questions, nominations, and everything else election-related!

A detailed election schedule will be published in June.

Consider running for the PSF Board!

In the meantime, we hope that folks in the Python community consider running for a seat on the PSF Board! Wondering who runs for the Board? People who care about the Python community, who want to see it flourish and grow, and also have a few hours a month to attend regular meetings, serve on committees, participate in conversations, and promote the Python community.

Check out our Life as Python Software Foundation Director video to learn more about what being a part of the PSF Board entails. You can also check out our FAQ’s with the PSF Board video on the PSF YouTube Channel. If you’re headed to PyCon US 2025 next month, that’s a great time to connect with current and past Board Members. We also invite you to review our Annual Impact Report for 2023 to learn more about the PSF’s mission and what we do. Last but not least, we welcome you to join the PSF Board Office Hours to connect with Board members about being a part of the PSF Board!

April 24, 2025 03:21 PM UTC

Everyday Superpowers

Finding the root of a project with pathlib

if __name__ == '__main__':
    from pathlib import Path
    project_root = next(
        p for p in Path(__file__).parents
        if (p / '.git').exists()
    )
    project_root.joinpath('output.text').write_text(...)

April 24, 2025 01:38 PM UTC

Zato Blog

Integrating with Jira APIs

Integrating with Jira APIs

2025-04-24, by Dariusz Suchojad

Overview

Continuing in the series of articles about newest cloud connections in Zato 3.3, this episode covers Atlassian Jira from the perspective of invoking its APIs to build integrations between Jira and other systems.

There are essentially two use modes of integrations with Jira:

1. Jira reacts to events taking place in your projects and invokes your endpoints accordingly via WebHooks. In this case, it is Jira that explicitly establishes connections with and sends requests to your APIs.
2. Jira projects are queried periodically or as a consequence of events triggered by Jira using means other than WebHooks.

The first case is usually more straightforward to conceptualize - you create a WebHook in Jira, point it to your endpoint and Jira invokes it when a situation of interest arises, e.g. a new ticket is opened or updated. I will talk about this variant of integrations with Jira in a future instalment as the current one is about the other situation, when it is your systems that establish connections with Jira.

The reason why it is more practical to first speak about the second form is that, even if WebHooks are somewhat easier to reason about, they do come with their own ramifications.

To start off, assuming that you use the cloud-based version of Jira (e.g. https://example.atlassian.net), you need to have a publicly available endpoint for Jira to invoke through WebHooks. Very often, this is undesirable because the systems that you need to integrate with may be internal ones, never meant to be exposed to public networks.

Secondly, your endpoints need to have a TLS certificate signed by a public Certificate Authority and they need to be accessible on port 443. Again, both of these are something that most enterprise systems will not allow at all or it may take months or years to process such a change internally across the various corporate departments involved.

Lastly, even if a WebHook can be used, it is not always a given that the initial information that you receive in the request from a WebHook will already contain everything that you need in your particular integration service. Thus, you will still need a way to issue requests to Jira to look up details of a particular object, such as tickets, in this way reducing WebHooks to the role of initial triggers of an interaction with Jira, e.g. a WebHook invokes your endpoint, you have a ticket ID on input and then you invoke Jira back anyway to obtain all the details that you actually need in your business integration.

The end situation is that, although WebHooks are a useful concept that I will write about in a future article, they may very well not be sufficient for many integration use cases. That is why I start with integration methods that are alternative to WebHooks.

Alternatives to WebHooks

If, in our case, we cannot use WebHooks then what next? Two good approaches are:

1. Scheduled jobs
2. Reacting to emails (via IMAP)

Scheduled jobs will let you periodically inquire with Jira about the changes that you have not processed yet. For instance, with a job definition as below:

Now, the service configured for this job will be invoked once per minute to carry out any integration works required. For instance, it can get a list of tickets since the last time it ran, process each of them as required in your business context and update a database with information about what has been just done - the database can be based on Redis, MongoDB, SQL or anything else.

Integrations built around scheduled jobs make most sense when you need to make periodic sweeps across a large swaths of business data, these are the "Give me everything that changed in the last period" kind of interactions when you do not know precisely how much data you are going to receive.

In the specific case of Jira tickets, though, an interesting alternative may be to combine scheduled jobs with IMAP connections:

The idea here is that when new tickets are opened, or when updates are made to existing ones, Jira will send out notifications to specific email addresses and we can take advantage of it.

For instance, you can tell Jira to CC or BCC an address such as zato@example.com. Now, Zato will still run a scheduled job but instead of connecting with Jira directly, that job will look up unread emails for it inbox ("UNSEEN" per the relevant RFC).

Anything that is unread must be new since the last iteration which means that we can process each such email from the inbox, in this way guaranteeing that we process only the latest updates, dispensing with the need for our own database of tickets already processed. We can extract the ticket ID or other details from the email, look up its details in Jira and the continue as needed.

All the details of how to work with IMAP emails are provided in the documentation but it would boil down to this:

# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-

# Zato
from zato.server.service import Service

class MyService(Service):

    def handle(self):
        conn = self.email.imap.get('My Jira Inbox').conn

        for msg_id, msg in conn.get():

            # Process the message here ..
            process_message(msg.data)

            # .. and mark it as seen in IMAP.
            msg.mark_seen()

The natural question is - how would the "process_message" function extract details of a ticket from an email?

There are several ways:

1. Each email has a subject of a fixed form - "[JIRA] (ABC-123) Here goes description". In this case, ABC-123 is the ticket ID.
2. Each email will contain a summary, such as the one below, which can also be parsed:

         Summary: Here goes description
             Key: ABC-123
             URL: https://example.atlassian.net/browse/ABC-123
         Project: My Project
      Issue Type: Improvement
Affects Versions: 1.3.17
     Environment: Production
        Reporter: Reporter Name
        Assignee: Assignee Name

1. Finally, each email will have an "X-Atl-Mail-Meta" header with interesting metadata that can also be parsed and extracted:

X-Atl-Mail-Meta: user_id="123456:12d80508-dcd0-42a2-a2cd-c07f230030e5",
                 event_type="Issue Created",
                 tenant="https://example.atlassian.net"

The first option is the most straightforward and likely the most convenient one - simply parse out the ticket ID and call Jira with that ID on input for all the other information about the ticket. How to do it exactly is presented in the next chapter.

Regardless of how we parse the emails, the important part is that we know that we invoke Jira only when there are new or updated tickets - otherwise there would not have been any new emails to process. Moreover, because it is our side that invokes Jira, we do not expose our internal system to the public network directly.

However, from the perspective of the overall security architecture, email is still part of the attack surface so we need to make sure that we read and parse emails with that in view. In other words, regardless of whether it is Jira invoking us or our reading emails from Jira, all the usual security precautions regarding API integrations and accepting input from external resources, all that still holds and needs to be part of the design of the integration workflow.

Creating Jira connections

The above presented the ways in which we can arrive at the step of when we invoke Jira and now we are ready to actually do it.

As with other types of connections, Jira connections are created in Zato Dashboard, as below. Note that you use the email address of a user on whose behalf you connect to Jira but the only other credential is that user's API token previously generated in Jira, not the user's password.

Invoking Jira

With a Jira connection in place, we can now create a Python API service. In this case, we accept a ticket ID on input (called "a key" in Jira) and we return a few details about the ticket to our caller.

This is the kind of a service that could be invoked from a service that is triggered by a scheduled job. That is, we would separate the tasks, one service would be responsible for opening IMAP inboxes and parsing emails and the one below would be responsible for communication with Jira.

Thanks to this loose coupling, we make everything much more reusable - that the services can be changed independently is but one part and the more important side is that, with such separation, both of them can be reused by future services as well, without tying them rigidly to this one integration alone.

# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-

# stdlib
from dataclasses import dataclass

# Zato
from zato.common.typing_ import cast_, dictnone
from zato.server.service import Model, Service

# ###########################################################################

if 0:
    from zato.server.connection.jira_ import JiraClient

# ###########################################################################

@dataclass(init=False)
class GetTicketDetailsRequest(Model):
    key: str

@dataclass(init=False)
class GetTicketDetailsResponse(Model):
    assigned_to: str = ''
    progress_info: dictnone = None

# ###########################################################################

class GetTicketDetails(Service):

    class SimpleIO:
        input  = GetTicketDetailsRequest
        output = GetTicketDetailsResponse

    def handle(self):

        # This is our input data
        input = self.request.input # type: GetTicketDetailsRequest

        # .. create a reference to our connection definition ..
        jira = self.cloud.jira['My Jira Connection']

        # .. obtain a client to Jira ..
        with jira.conn.client() as client:

            # Cast to enable code completion
            client = cast_('JiraClient', client)

            # Get details of a ticket (issue) from Jira
            ticket = client.get_issue(input.key)

        # Observe that ticket may be None (e.g. invalid key), hence this 'if' guard ..
        if ticket:

            # .. build a shortcut reference to all the fields in the ticket ..
            fields = ticket['fields']

            # .. build our response object ..
            response = GetTicketDetailsResponse()
            response.assigned_to = fields['assignee']['emailAddress']
            response.progress_info = fields['progress']

            # .. and return the response to our caller.
            self.response.payload = response

# ###########################################################################

Creating a REST channel and testing it

The last remaining part is a REST channel to invoke our service through. We will provide the ticket ID (key) on input and the service will reply with what was found in Jira for that ticket.

We are now ready for the final step - we invoke the channel, which invokes the service which communicates with Jira, transforming the response from Jira to the output that we need:

$ curl localhost:17010/jira1 -d '{"key":"ABC-123"}'
{
    "assigned_to":"zato@example.com",
    "progress_info": {
        "progress": 10,
        "total": 30
    }
}
$

And this is everything for today - just remember that this is just one way of integrating with Jira. The other one, using WebHooks, is something that I will go into in one of the future articles.

More resources

➤ Python API integration tutorials
➤ What is an integration platform?
➤ Python Integration platform as a Service (iPaaS)
➤ What is an Enterprise Service Bus (ESB)? What is SOA?
➤ Open-source iPaaS in Python

April 24, 2025 08:00 AM UTC

April 23, 2025

DataWars.io

Replit Teams for Education Deprecation: All you need to know | DataWars

April 23, 2025 07:41 PM UTC

Real Python

Getting Started With Python IDLE

Python IDLE is the default integrated development environment (IDE) that comes bundled with every Python installation, helping you to start coding right out of the box. In this tutorial, you’ll explore how to interact with Python directly in IDLE, edit and execute Python files, and even customize the environment to suit your preferences.

By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that:

• Python IDLE is completely free and comes packaged with the Python language itself.
• Python IDLE is an IDE included with Python installations, designed for basic editing, execution, and debugging of Python code.
• You open IDLE through your system’s application launcher or terminal, depending on your operating system.
• You can customize IDLE to make it a useful tool for writing Python.

Understanding the basics of Python IDLE will allow you to write, test, and debug Python programs without installing any additional software.

Get Your Cheat Sheet: Click here to download your free cheat sheet that will help you find the best coding font when starting with IDLE.

Open Python’s IDLE for the First Time

Python IDLE is free and comes included in Python installations on Windows and macOS. If you’re a Linux user, then you should be able to find and download Python IDLE using your package manager. Once you’ve installed it, you can then open Python IDLE and use it as an interactive interpreter or as a file editor.

Note: IDLE stands for “Integrated Development and Learning Environment.” It’s a wordplay with IDE, which stands for Integrated Development Environment.

The procedure for opening IDLE depends on how you installed Python and varies from one operating system to another. Select your operating system below and follow the steps to open IDLE:

• Windows
• Linux
• macOS

Open the Start menu and click All Programs or All Apps. There should be a program icon labeled IDLE (Python 3.x). This will vary slightly between different versions of Windows. The IDLE icon may be in a program group folder named Python 3.x.

You can also find the IDLE program icon by using the Windows search from the Start menu and typing in IDLE. Click on the icon to start the program.

IDLE is available with the Python distribution but may not have been installed by default. To find out whether it’s installed, open a terminal window.

In the terminal window, type idle3 and press Enter. If you get an error telling you that the command wasn’t found, then IDLE isn’t installed and you’ll need to install it.

The method for installing apps varies from one Linux distribution to the next. For example, with Ubuntu Linux, you can install IDLE using the package manager apt:

Shell

$ sudo apt install idle3

Copied!

Many Linux distributions have GUI-based application managers that you can use to install apps as well.

Follow whatever procedure is appropriate for your distribution to install IDLE. Then, type idle3 in a terminal window and press Enter to run it. Your installation procedure may have also set up a program icon on the desktop that you can alternatively click to start IDLE.

Open Spotlight Search and search for IDLE. Alternatively, you can open a terminal window, type idle3 and press Enter.

Once you’ve started IDLE successfully, you should see a window titled IDLE Shell 3.x.x, where 3.x.x corresponds to your version of Python:

The window that you’re seeing is the IDLE shell, which is an interactive interpreter that IDLE opens by default.

Get to Know the Python IDLE Shell

When you open IDLE, the shell is the first thing that you see. The shell is the default mode of operation for Python IDLE. It’s a blank Python interpreter window, which you can use to interact with Python immediately.

Understanding the Interactive Interpreter

The interactive interpreter is a basic Read-Eval-Print Loop (REPL). It reads a Python statement, evaluates the result of that statement, and then prints the result on the screen. Then, it loops back to read the next statement.

Note: For a full guide to the standard Python REPL, check out The Python Standard REPL: Try Out Code and Ideas Quickly.

The IDLE shell is an excellent place to experiment with small code snippets and test short lines of code.

Interacting With the IDLE Shell

When you launch Python’s IDLE, it will immediately start a Python shell for you. Go ahead and write some Python code in the shell:

Here, you used print() to output the string "Hello, from IDLE!" to your screen. This is the most basic way to interact with Python IDLE. You type in commands one at a time and Python responds with the result of each command.

Next, take a look at the menu bar. You’ll see a few options for using the shell:

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-idle/ »

[ Improve Your Python With 🐍 Python Tricks 💌 – Get a short & sweet Python Trick delivered to your inbox every couple of days. >> Click here to learn more and see examples ]

April 23, 2025 02:00 PM UTC

April 22, 2025

PyCoder’s Weekly

Issue #678: Namespaces, __init__, Sets, and More (April 22, 2025)

#678 – APRIL 22, 2025
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AI Agent Code Walkthrough with Python & Temporal

Join us on May 2nd at 9am PST/12pm EST for a deep dive into using Temporal’s Agentic AI use cases. We’ll begin with a live demo demonstrating how Temporal lets you recover from unexpected issues before transitioning to a live walkthrough with our Solution Architects →
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Happy Pythoning!
This was PyCoder’s Weekly Issue #678.
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April 22, 2025 07:30 PM UTC

EuroPython Society

Call for EuroPython 2026 Host Venues

Are you a community builder dreaming of bringing EuroPython to your city? The Call for Venues for EuroPython 2026 is now open! 🎉

EuroPython is the longest-running volunteer-led Python conference in the world, uniting communities across Europe. It’s a place to learn, share, connect, spark new ideas—and have fun along the way.

We aim to keep the conference welcoming and accessible by choosing venues that are affordable, easy to reach, and sustainable. As with the selection process in previous years, we’d love your help in finding the best location for future editions.

If you&aposd like to propose a location on behalf of your community, please fill out this form:

👉 https://forms.gle/ZGQA7WhTW4gc53MD6

Even if 2026 isn’t the right time, don’t hesitate to get in touch. We&aposd also like to hear from communities interested in hosting EuroPython in 2027 or later.

Questions, suggestions, or comments? Drop us a line at board@europython.eu—we’ll get back to you!

EuroPython Society Board

April 22, 2025 02:48 PM UTC

Real Python

MySQL Databases and Python

MySQL is one of the most popular database management systems (DBMSs) on the market today. It ranked second only to the Oracle DBMS in this year’s DB-Engines Ranking. As most software applications need to interact with data in some form, programming languages like Python provide tools for storing and accessing these data sources.

Using the techniques discussed in this video course, you’ll be able to efficiently integrate a MySQL database with a Python application. You’ll develop a small MySQL database for a movie rating system and learn how to query it directly from your Python code.

By the end of this video course, you’ll be able to:

• Identify unique features of MySQL
• Connect your application to a MySQL database
• Query the database to fetch required data
• Handle exceptions that occur while accessing the database
• Use best practices while building database applications

[ Improve Your Python With 🐍 Python Tricks 💌 – Get a short & sweet Python Trick delivered to your inbox every couple of days. >> Click here to learn more and see examples ]

April 22, 2025 02:00 PM UTC

Python Software Foundation

PSF Grants Program 2024 Transparency Report

The PSF’s Grants Program is a key plank in our charitable mission to promote, protect, and advance the Python programming language and to support and facilitate the growth of a diverse and international community of Python programmers. After much research, input, and analysis, the PSF is pleased to share the PSF Grants Program 2024 Transparency Report. The report includes context, numbers, analysis, and next steps for the Program.

Similar to our PSF Grants Program 2022 & 2023 Transparency Report, this 2024 report reflects the outcome of a significant amount of work. There are some differences in the position we are in as we approached the development of this report:

• The 2022 & 2023 report provided concrete areas for improvement
• During 2024, a notable amount of focused PSF Staff time was dedicated to improving our Grants Program and the processes
• The PSF received and awarded a record-breaking amount of grants in 2024, which resulted in the need to re-evaluate the Program’s goals and sustainability

The data from 2024 was truly wonderful to see (many WOW’s and 🥳🥳 were shared among PSF Staff)– and we are so happy to share it with the community. The PSF is also excited to share that we achieved many of the goals we listed in the 2022 & 2023 report and believe this is a reflection of the focused work we undertook in 2024. Even with these wins, the PSF recognizes multiple opportunities to continue to improve the Program. We are also aware that our recent sustainability-focused changes to the Program will likely result in the need for additional improvements and adjustments.

The PSF continues to feel it is important to acknowledge that individual Pythonistas, regional communities, and the broader community are behind these statistics and commentaries. This report reflects the outcome of thousands of hours of efforts over 2024, 2023, and 2022 by the Grants Workgroup, the PSF Board, Python organizers, and PSF Staff worldwide. The PSF truly values this opportunity to share information on the success and challenges of our Grants Program, all while honoring the hard work of everyone involved in making the program and our mission possible.

This report was compiled by PSF Staff and reviewed by the PSF Board and Grants Workgroup. If you have questions, comments, or feedback about the Grants Program or this report, please email grants@python.org or attend a session of the Grants Program Office Hours on the PSF Discord.

Setting Context

The PSF has been working to improve our Grants Program since receiving a call from our community to address concerns and frustrations in December 2023. Our 2022 & 2023 report listed the actions the PSF has taken since we first received the call, and we are happy to share that since publishing our last report, the PSF Board, Grants Workgroup, and Staff have:

• Held monthly Grants Program Office Hours (now past its 1st anniversary) with much success and active participation at every session, and we plan to continue these indefinitely!
• Strategized at the PSF Board retreat, which resulted in Guiding Principles for the Grants Program
• Evaluated the Grants Program expenditure using grant data to conduct scenario analysis and ensure long-term program and foundation sustainability.
• Updated the Grants Workgroup Charter twice:
• The first update was focused on process improvements (part 1, part 2).
• The second update was focused on sustainability (TLDR, part 1, part 2, part 3).
• Ensured active Grants Workgroup engagement by conducting a confirmation of the workgroup memberships.
• Updated the main documentation page for the Grants Program to improve clarity around the program’s processes, requirements, and what applicants can expect.
• Updated the Grants Program application form to clarify questions that caused confusion, and added more questions to help us better review applications and perform additional grant data analysis in the future.
• Revamped the former virtual events resource page to be an Event Organizer Resource Library to include more types of resources and information for grant applicants.

For a high-level idea of the scope of our Grants Program, the PSF is happy to share:

• The PSF distributed $952K in Grants during 2024 for the Grants and PyCon US Travel Grants Programs combined, an increase of over 50% over 2023’s total.
• The Grants Program distributed $637K In Grants during 2024.

A couple of additional notes:

• This transparency report is focused on the Grants Program only. If you want to learn more about travel grants check out the Travel Grants Process for PyCon US 2025 blog post on the PyCon US blog.
• Across this report and our communications about grants, “distributed” means funds that were paid, and “awarded” means funds that were resolved to be distributed. While a subtle difference, there can be discrepancies between “awarded” and “distributed” figures for several reasons, such as grant recipients that never claim their awards, or grants that were awarded at the end of December but weren’t paid until January.
• We discovered a corner case on applications and how data is gathered for this report; applications that were received in 2023 but weren’t voted on until 2024 were not included in the 2022 & 2023 report. Those are included in this report. The following report will be on the 119 grants that the PSF reviewed during the year 2024.

Again, the growth the PSF Grants Program has seen from 2022 to 2024 (and over the years) is exciting to reflect on because of what it means– you, the community, are wonderfully thriving and active! The PSF can’t wait to see what 2025 has in store for our Grants Program and the Python community.  

The numbers (in graph form)

Thanks to Tania Allard for helping improve the readability and accessibility of the graphs provided in this report.

Our Analysis 

General Trends, Observations, & Notes

• The increase in total grant applications we received from 2024 over 2023, and again over 2022, is exciting! We anticipated more applications coming in throughout 2024 and we were correct. With the recent changes to our Grants Program, the trends we’ve seen in Q1 of 2025, and the funding crunch in the tech sector, we anticipate receiving even more applications in 2025.
• Beyond just more applications, we had more of a lot; more successful grant applications, more funds awarded, more communications, more changes to the Program, and more dedicated PSF Staff time!

Number of Total Grant Applications by Continent

• Similar to last year’s report, we received the most number of applications from Africa and Europe, with South America not far behind.
• The number of grant applications from almost all continents have continued to increase 2024 over 2023, and have more than doubled over the total number of applications we received in 2022.

Percentage of Grants Approved

• The percentage of approved applications increased 2024 over 2023. We feel this increase can be attributed to the direct line of communications applicants have to program administrators via the PSF Grants Program Office Hours.
• Some reasons applications were denied include:
• Unable to meet PSF Grants Program criteria
• Unclear benefit to funding the application
• Not Python related
• Spam

Percentage of Grant Applications by Continent

• Again in 2024, we received fewer applications from Asia, North America, and Oceania. Oceania is an outlier. Based on the distribution of populations globally, the percentage of applications from Asia is lower than expected. While we want to note that we cannot award Grants to certain countries due to United States OFAC restrictions that US-based 501(c)(3)s must follow, we again urge organizers from Asia to request Grant funding to supplement and enhance their events.
• While the number of applications we’ve received have continued to increase, the distribution of grant applications across continents has remained relatively stable from 2022-2024. We do want to note a small but steady increase in the percentage of grant applications from Africa and North America, and a small decrease in applications from South America.

Approved & Declined Grant Applications by Continent

• The ratio of approved to declined grant applications (87.5% approved, 12.5% declined in 2024) from Africa is positive, as this was a stated area for improvement in last year’s report (68% approved, 32% declined in 2023). We believe this can be at least partially attributed to the PSF Grants Program Office Hours, plus more communications regarding how the Program works and the changes occurring around it.

Dollar Amount Granted by Continent & Percentage of Money Granted by Continent

• The amount granted to Africa more than doubled 2024 over 2023, and more than 14 times the amount granted to Africa in 2022! As we also received the most grant applications from Africa in 2024, we feel this outcome is positive.
• Comparing the percentages of grant applications by continent versus the percentages of money granted by continent, we feel it is positive that these percentages closely match (i.e. awarding of funds is roughly equivalent to the percentage of applications across continents) with a couple points of difference.
• The total amount of funds granted doubled 2023 over 2022 and again almost doubled 2024 over 2023. This continued dramatic increase resulted in our recent changes to the Grants Program to ensure the program’s sustainability.
• The amount of funds awarded to Asia and South America are low compared to other continents taking into account global population distributions. While this aligns with the number of applications we received from these regions (i.e. the percentage of funds awarded and percentage of accepted applications for these regions are close), we would like to understand if the low number of applications is due to activity level, lack of awareness, or other factors.

Average Amount Granted by Continent

• Oceania continues to be an outlier; the PSF received one application in 2022, two in 2023, and two in 2024 from Oceania. Many more grants were awarded to other regions, which caused their average dollar amounts to be lower.
• The average dollar amount across the rest of the continents are reasonably close, and we are pleased to see the average amount granted to Africa has risen.
• Asia and South America are still lagging behind, which could be attributed to the type of grant requests we receive from that region (such as Django Girls workshop versus PyCons) and the amounts being requested. And the reverse side of that– grant applications from North America tend to be for conferences and not workshops or small events, hence the larger average amount granted.

Grant Decision Times in Weeks by Number & Percentage of Applications

• We are pleased to see that the majority of the grant review period falls around 4 and 5 weeks, which is reasonable based on the process and load of grant applications we received.
• When we reviewed applications that took longer than 6-8 weeks to decide, we found one scenario in particular continues to arise. Applications are sometimes submitted without crucial information, and there is significant time spent on communications between applicants, PSF Staff, and the Grants Workgroup. Once requested, there are can be delays in receiving the required information back from applicants.

Grants Program Average Days to Decide by Continent

• The average days to decide across continents is generally similar, with a few exceptions for Asia and Oceania being shorter. This graph also shows Oceania as an outlier, and, again, it is skewed because we received only two applications in 2024 from that region. The average number of days to decide for grant applications for Asia was high in 2023 at 45 days, and we are pleased to see that decrease significantly in 2024 to 25 days.
• We are pleased to see the average number of days to come to a decision regarding grant applications has decreased to 28 days in 2024 over 32 days in 2023. We feel this can be attributed to process improvements, Grants Workgroup engagement, and more dedicated time from PSF Staff.

Next steps and a final note

As the PSF reflects on all the successes of the Grants Program in 2024, we are preparing ourselves for even more adjustments to come with the updated Program and Grants Workgroup Charter. Some of our goals for 2025 include:

• Continue building the Event Organizer Resource Library.
• Continue hosting the Grants Program Office Hours to increase ongoing transparency, support grant applicants, and identify and close any gaps in our updated documentation.
• Monitor and evaluate the Grants Program awards on a quarterly, bi-annual, and yearly basis to ensure Program and Foundation sustainability.
• Revisit the effectiveness and sustainability of the Grants Program yearly.
• Continue to analyze, discuss, and compare the actual state of our Grants Program against the Guiding Principles for the program.
• Work to first understand why we are receiving a proportionately lower number of applications from Asia and South America.

The PSF hopes this transparency report will help our community understand the state of our Grants Program in 2024, and the previous two years. Again, the process has been instructive to the Board, the Grants Workgroup, and the PSF Staff who administer the Program to understand where our efforts paid off, and where we can continue to improve. This report will inform our future efforts as we continue to make adjustments and improvements to the program. The PSF looks forward to continuing to serve the Python community with grants in 2025!

If you have any questions, comments, or feedback, please email grants@python.org. We also welcome you to attend a session of the Grants Program Office Hours on the PSF Discord (the next session is Tuesday, May 20th, at 9 AM Eastern, 1 PM UTC!). 

April 22, 2025 08:48 AM UTC

Wingware

Wing Python IDE 11 Beta 2 - April 22, 2025

Wing 11 beta2 is now available. It introduces support for Claude, Grok, Gemini, Perplexity, Mistral, Deepseek, Ollama, and other OpenAI API compatible AI providers.

Wing 11 is a new major release of the Wingware Python IDE, with improved AI assisted development, support for the uv package manager, improved Python code analysis, improved custom key binding assignment user interface, improved diff/merge, a new preference to auto-save files when Wing loses the application focus, updated German, French and Russian localizations (partly using AI), a new experimental AI-driven Spanish localization, and other bug fixes and minor improvements.

You can access early access releases simply by downloading them. We ask only that you keep your feedback and bug reports private by submitting them through Wing's Help menu or by emailing us at support@wingware.com.

Downloads

Wing Pro 11.0.0.3

Wing Personal 11.0.0.3

Wing 101 11.0.0.3

Wing 10 and earlier versions are not affected by installation of Wing 11 and may be installed and used independently. However, project files for Wing 10 and earlier are converted when opened by Wing 11 and should be saved under a new name, since Wing 11 projects cannot be opened by older versions of Wing.

New in Wing 11

Improved AI Assisted Development

Wing 11 improves the user interface for AI assisted development by introducing two separate tools AI Coder and AI Chat. AI Coder can be used to write, redesign, or extend code in the current editor. AI Chat can be used to ask about code or iterate in creating a design or new code without directly modifying the code in an editor.

Wing 11's AI assisted development features now support not just OpenAI but also Claude, Grok, Gemini, Perplexity, Mistral, Deepseek, and any other OpenAI completions API compatible AI provider.

This release also improves setting up AI request context, so that both automatically and manually selected and described context items may be paired with an AI request. AI request contexts can now be stored, optionally so they are shared by all projects, and may be used independently with different AI features.

AI requests can now also be stored in the current project or shared with all projects, and Wing comes preconfigured with a set of commonly used requests. In addition to changing code in the current editor, stored requests may create a new untitled file or run instead in AI Chat. Wing 11 also introduces options for changing code within an editor, including replacing code, commenting out code, or starting a diff/merge session to either accept or reject changes.

Wing 11 also supports using AI to generate commit messages based on the changes being committed to a revision control system.

You can now also configure multiple AI providers for easier access to different models.

For details see AI Assisted Development under Wing Manual in Wing 11's Help menu.

Package Management with uv

Wing Pro 11 adds support for the uv package manager in the New Project dialog and the Packages tool.

For details see Project Manager > Creating Projects > Creating Python Environments and Package Manager > Package Management with uv under Wing Manual in Wing 11's Help menu.

Improved Python Code Analysis

Wing 11 improves code analysis of literals such as dicts and sets, parametrized type aliases, typing.Self, type variables on the def or class line that declares them, generic classes with [...], and __all__ in *.pyi files.

Updated Localizations

Wing 11 updates the German, French, and Russian localizations, and introduces a new experimental AI-generated Spanish localization. The Spanish localization and the new AI-generated strings in the French and Russian localizations may be accessed with the new User Interface > Include AI Translated Strings preference.

Improved diff/merge

Wing Pro 11 adds floating buttons directly between the editors to make navigating differences and merging easier, allows undoing previously merged changes, and does a better job managing scratch buffers, scroll locking, and sizing of merged ranges.

For details see Difference and Merge under Wing Manual in Wing 11's Help menu.

Other Minor Features and Improvements

Wing 11 also improves the custom key binding assignment user interface, adds a Files > Auto-Save Files When Wing Loses Focus preference, warns immediately when opening a project with an invalid Python Executable configuration, allows clearing recent menus, expands the set of available special environment variables for project configuration, and makes a number of other bug fixes and usability improvements.

Changes and Incompatibilities

Since Wing 11 replaced the AI tool with AI Coder and AI Chat, and AI configuration is completely different than in Wing 10, you will need to reconfigure your AI integration manually in Wing 11. This is done with Manage AI Providers in the AI menu. After adding the first provider configuration, Wing will set that provider as the default. You can switch between providers with Switch to Provider in the AI menu.

If you have questions about any of this, please don't hesitate to contact us at support@wingware.com.

April 22, 2025 01:00 AM UTC

Seth Michael Larson

Quick Mastodon toot templates for event hashtags

I'm a big fan of Mastodon and I plan to cover PyCon US 2025 on Mastodon almost exclusively (and it sounds like I'm not alone).

This was the plan last year, too, but I found typing out all the hashtags every time definitely discouraged me from posting about "in-the-moment" stuff.

The goal is to quickly capture a thought, interaction, or image, share to Mastodon, and then get back to enjoying the conference.

Pre-populated event hashtags!

So I went looking for a solution and found that Mastodon supports share URLs with pre-filled content, like hashtags. What I wanted to do was add a URL to my phone home screen:

https://<instance domain name>/share?text=%0A%0A%23PyCon%20%23PyConUS%20%23PyConUS2025

The above percent-encoded text parameter is:

\n\n#PyCon #PyConUS #PyConUS2025

If we could save this URL direct to the home screen that would be the end of the story. Unfortunately, at least for iOS you can't save a web page that has a query parameter in the URL (like ?text=...), so the solution needs to be slightly more complicated.

What I ended up doing is adding this URL to a GitHub Gist and then saving the Gist webpage to my home screen. On iOS the process is:

• Navigate to the Gist in your mobile browser
• Use the "share" button within the browser
• Select "Add to Home Screen" in the share screen
• Give the page a name (I went with "#PyConUS2025").
• :tada:

Now I'm only ever two clicks away from a ready-to-use toot template for PyCon US. This technique is remixable for any hashtags or other text you're tooting often. Use urllib.parse.quote() in Python to create percent-encoded text.

April 22, 2025 12:00 AM UTC

April 21, 2025

death and gravity

Process​Thread​Pool​Executor: when I‍/‍O becomes CPU-bound

So, you're doing some I‍/‍O bound stuff, in parallel.

Maybe you're scraping some websites – a lot of websites.

Maybe you're updating or deleting millions of DynamoDB items.

You've got your ThreadPoolExecutor, you've increased the number of threads and tuned connection limits... but after some point, it's just not getting any faster. You look at your Python process, and you see CPU utilization hovers above 100%.

You could split the work into batches and have a ProcessPoolExecutor run your original code in separate processes. But that requires yet more code, and a bunch of changes, which is no fun. And maybe your input is not that easy to split into batches.

If only we had an executor that worked seamlessly across processes and threads.

Well, you're in luck, since that's exactly what we're building today!

And even better, in a couple years you won't even need it anymore.

• Establishing a baseline
  • Threads
  • Problem: CPU becomes a bottleneck
  • Processes?
  • Problem: more processes, more memory
• Why not both?
  • A minimal plausible solution
  • Getting results
  • Fine, we'll make our own futures
  • Death becomes a problem
• Bonus: free threading

Establishing a baseline #

To measure things, we'll use a mock that pretends to do mostly I‍/‍O, with a sprinkling of CPU-bound work thrown in – a stand-in for something like a database connection, a Requests session, or a DynamoDB client.

class Client:
    io_time = 0.02
    cpu_time = 0.0008

    def method(self, arg):
        # simulate I/O
        time.sleep(self.io_time)

        # simulate CPU-bound work
        start = time.perf_counter()
        while time.perf_counter() - start < self.cpu_time:
            for i in range(100): i ** i

        return arg

We sleep() for the I‍/‍O, and do some math in a loop for the CPU stuff; it doesn't matter exactly how long each takes, as long I‍/‍O time dominates.

Real multi-threaded clients are usually backed by a connection pool; we could simulate one using a semaphore, but it's not relevant here – we're assuming the connection pool is effectively unbounded.

Since we'll use our client from multiple processes, we set up a global instance and a function that uses it; we can then pass init_client() as an executor initializer, which also allows us passing arguments to the client when creating it.

client = None

def init_client(*args):
    global client
    client = Client(*args)

def do_stuff(*args):
    return client.method(*args)

Finally, we make a simple timing context manager:

@contextmanager
def timer():
    start = time.perf_counter()
    yield
    end = time.perf_counter()
    print(f"elapsed: {end-start:1.3f}")

...and put everything together in a function that measures how long it takes to do a bunch of work using a concurrent.futures executor:

def benchmark(executor, n=10_000, timer=timer, chunksize=10):
    with executor:
        # make sure all the workers are started,
        # so we don't measure their startup time
        list(executor.map(time.sleep, [0] * 200))

        with timer():
            values = list(executor.map(do_stuff, range(n), chunksize=chunksize))

        assert values == list(range(n)), values

Threads #

So, a ThreadPoolExecutor should suffice here, since we're mostly doing I‍/‍O, right?

>>> from concurrent.futures import *
>>> from bench import *
>>> init_client()
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(10))
elapsed: 24.693

More threads!

>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(20))
elapsed: 12.405

Twice the threads, twice as fast. More!

>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(30))
elapsed: 8.718

Good, it's still scaling linearly. MORE!

>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(40))
elapsed: 8.638

...more?

>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(50))
elapsed: 8.458
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(60))
elapsed: 8.430
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(70))
elapsed: 8.428

Problem: CPU becomes a bottleneck #

It's time we take a closer look at what our process is doing.

I'd normally use the top command for this, but since the flags and output vary with the operating system, we'll implement our own using the excellent psutil library.

@contextmanager
def top():
    """Print information about current and child processes.

    RES is the resident set size. USS is the unique set size.
    %CPU is the CPU utilization. nTH is the number of threads.

    """
    process = psutil.Process()
    processes = [process] + process.children(True)
    for p in processes: p.cpu_percent()

    yield

    print(f"{'PID':>7} {'RES':>7} {'USS':>7} {'%CPU':>7} {'nTH':>7}")
    for p in processes:
        try:
            m = p.memory_full_info()
        except psutil.AccessDenied:
            m = p.memory_info()
        rss = m.rss / 2**20
        uss = getattr(m, 'uss', 0) / 2**20
        cpu = p.cpu_percent()
        nth = p.num_threads()
        print(f"{p.pid:>7} {rss:6.1f}m {uss:6.1f}m {cpu:7.1f} {nth:>7}")

And because it's a context manager, we can use it as a timer:

>>> init_client()
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(10), timer=top)
    PID     RES     USS    %CPU     nTH
  51395   35.2m   28.5m    38.7      11

So, what happens if we increase the number of threads?

>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(20), timer=top)
    PID     RES     USS    %CPU     nTH
  13912   16.8m   13.2m    70.7      21
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(30), timer=top)
    PID     RES     USS    %CPU     nTH
  13912   17.0m   13.4m    99.1      31
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(40), timer=top)
    PID     RES     USS    %CPU     nTH
  13912   17.3m   13.7m   100.9      41

With more threads, the compute part of our I‍/‍O bound workload increases, eventually becoming high enough to saturate one CPU – and due to the global interpreter lock, one CPU is all we can use, regardless of the number of threads.¹

Processes? #

I know, let's use a ProcessPoolExecutor instead!

>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(20, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 12.374
>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(30, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 8.330
>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(40, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 6.273

Hmmm... I guess it is a little bit better.

More? More!

>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(60, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 4.751
>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(80, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 3.785
>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(100, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 3.824

OK, it's better, but with diminishing returns – there's no improvement after 80 processes, and even then, it's only 2.2x faster than the best time with threads, when, in theory, it should be able to make full use of all 4 CPUs.

Also, we're not making best use of connection pooling (relevant if the client connects to many different hosts, since we now have 80 pools), nor multiplexing (relevant with protocols like HTTP/2 or newer, since we now have 80 connections).

Problem: more processes, more memory #

But it gets worse!

>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(80, initializer=init_client), timer=top)
    PID     RES     USS    %CPU     nTH
   2479   21.2m   15.4m    15.0       3
   2480   11.2m    6.3m     0.0       1
   2481   13.8m    8.5m     3.4       1
  ... 78 more lines ...
   2560   13.8m    8.5m     4.4       1

13.8 MiB * 80 ~= 1 GiB ... that is a lot of memory.

Now, there's some nuance to be had here.

First, on most operating systems that have virtual memory, code segment pages are shared between processes – there's no point in having 80 copies of libc or the Python interpreter in memory.

The unique set size is probably a better measurement than the resident set size, since it excludes memory shared between processes.² So, for the macOS output above,³ the actual usage is more like 8.5 MiB * 80 = 680 MiB.

Second, if you use the fork or forkserver start methods, processes also share memory allocated before the fork() via copy-on-write; for Python, this includes module code and variables. On Linux, the actual usage is 1.7 MiB * 80 = 136 MiB:

>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(80, initializer=init_client), timer=top)
    PID     RES     USS    %CPU     nTH
 329801   17.0m    6.6m     5.1       3
 329802   13.3m    1.6m     2.1       1
  ... 78 more lines ...
 329881   13.3m    1.7m     2.0       1

However, it's important to note that's just a lower bound; memory allocated after fork() is not shared, and most real work will unavoidably allocate more memory.

Why not both? #

One reasonable way of dealing with this would be to split the input into batches, one per CPU, and pass them to a ProcessPoolExecutor, which in turn runs the batch items using a ThreadPoolExecutor.⁴

But that would mean we need to change our code, and that's no fun.

If only we had an executor that worked seamlessly across processes and threads.

A minimal plausible solution #

In keeping with what has become tradition by now, we'll take an iterative, problem-solution approach; since we're not sure what to do yet, we start with the simplest thing that could possibly work.

We know we want a process pool executor that starts one thread pool executor per process, so let's deal with that first.

class ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor):

    def __init__(self, max_threads=None, initializer=None, initargs=()):
        super().__init__(
            initializer=_init_process,
            initargs=(max_threads, initializer, initargs)
        )

By subclassing ProcessPoolExecutor, we get the map() implementation for free. By going with the default max_workers, we get one process per CPU (which is what we want); we can add more arguments later if needed.

In our custom process initializer, we set up a global thread pool executor, and then call the initializer provided by the user:

_executor = None

def _init_process(max_threads, initializer, initargs):
    global _executor

    _executor = concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_threads)
    atexit.register(_executor.shutdown)

    if initializer:
        initializer(*initargs)

Likewise, submit() passes the work along to the thread pool executor:

class ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor):
    # ...
    def submit(self, fn, *args, **kwargs):
        return super().submit(_submit, fn, *args, **kwargs)

def _submit(fn, *args, **kwargs):
    return _executor.submit(fn, *args, **kwargs).result()

OK, that looks good enough; let's use it and see if it works:

def _do_stuff(n):
    print(f"doing: {n}")
    return n ** 2

if __name__ == '__main__':
    with ProcessThreadPoolExecutor() as e:
        print(list(e.map(_do_stuff, [0, 1, 2])))

 $ python ptpe.py
doing: 0
doing: 1
doing: 2
[0, 1, 4]

Wait, we got it on the first try?!

Let's measure that:

>>> from bench import *
>>> from ptpe import *
>>> benchmark(ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(30, initializer=init_client), n=1000)
elapsed: 6.161

Hmmm... that's unexpectedly slow... almost as if:

>>> multiprocessing.cpu_count()
4
>>> benchmark(ProcessPoolExecutor(4, initializer=init_client), n=1000)
elapsed: 6.067

Ah, because _submit() waits for the result() in the main thread of the worker process, this is just a ProcessPoolExecutor with extra steps.

But what if we send back the future instead?

    def submit(self, fn, *args, **kwargs):
        return super().submit(_submit, fn, *args, **kwargs).result()

def _submit(fn, *args, **kwargs):
    return _executor.submit(fn, *args, **kwargs)

Alas:

$ python ptpe.py
doing: 0
doing: 1
doing: 2
concurrent.futures.process._RemoteTraceback:
"""
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "concurrent/futures/process.py", line 210, in _sendback_result
    result_queue.put(_ResultItem(work_id, result=result,
  File "multiprocessing/queues.py", line 391, in put
    obj = _ForkingPickler.dumps(obj)
  File "multiprocessing/reduction.py", line 51, in dumps
    cls(buf, protocol).dump(obj)
TypeError: cannot pickle '_thread.RLock' object
"""

The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "ptpe.py", line 42, in <module>
    print(list(e.map(_do_stuff, [0, 1, 2])))
  ...
TypeError: cannot pickle '_thread.RLock' object

It may not seem like it, but this is a partial success: the work happens, we just can't get anything back. Not surprising, to be honest, it couldn't have been that easy.

Getting results #

If you look carefully at the traceback, you'll find a hint of how ProcessPoolExecutor gets its own results back from workers – a queue; the module docstring even has a neat data-flow diagram:

|======================= In-process =====================|== Out-of-process ==|

+----------+     +----------+       +--------+     +-----------+    +---------+
|          |  => | Work Ids |       |        |     | Call Q    |    | Process |
|          |     +----------+       |        |     +-----------+    |  Pool   |
|          |     | ...      |       |        |     | ...       |    +---------+
|          |     | 6        |    => |        |  => | 5, call() | => |         |
|          |     | 7        |       |        |     | ...       |    |         |
| Process  |     | ...      |       | Local  |     +-----------+    | Process |
|  Pool    |     +----------+       | Worker |                      |  #1..n  |
| Executor |                        | Thread |                      |         |
|          |     +----------- +     |        |     +-----------+    |         |
|          | <=> | Work Items | <=> |        | <=  | Result Q  | <= |         |
|          |     +------------+     |        |     +-----------+    |         |
|          |     | 6: call()  |     |        |     | ...       |    |         |
|          |     |    future  |     |        |     | 4, result |    |         |
|          |     | ...        |     |        |     | 3, except |    |         |
+----------+     +------------+     +--------+     +-----------+    +---------+

Now, we could probably use the same queue somehow, but it would involve touching a lot of (private) internals.⁵ Instead, let's use a separate queue:

    def __init__(self, max_threads=None, initializer=None, initargs=()):
        self.__result_queue = multiprocessing.Queue()
        super().__init__(
            initializer=_init_process,
            initargs=(self.__result_queue, max_threads, initializer, initargs)
        )

On the worker side, we make it globally accessible:

_executor = None
_result_queue = None

def _init_process(queue, max_threads, initializer, initargs):
    global _executor, _result_queue

    _executor = concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_threads)
    atexit.register(_executor.shutdown)

    _result_queue = queue
    atexit.register(_result_queue.close)

    if initializer:
        initializer(*initargs)

...so we can use it from a task callback registered by _submit():

def _submit(fn, *args, **kwargs):
    task = _executor.submit(fn, *args, **kwargs)
    task.add_done_callback(_put_result)

def _put_result(task):
    if exception := task.exception():
        _result_queue.put((False, exception))
    else:
        _result_queue.put((True, task.result()))

Back in the main process, we handle the results in a thread:

    def __init__(self, max_threads=None, initializer=None, initargs=()):
        # ...
        self.__result_handler = threading.Thread(target=self.__handle_results)
        self.__result_handler.start()

    def __handle_results(self):
        for ok, result in iter(self.__result_queue.get, None):
            print(f"{'ok' if ok else 'error'}: {result}")

Finally, to stop the handler, we use None as a sentinel on executor shutdown:

    def shutdown(self, wait=True):
        super().shutdown(wait=wait)
        if self.__result_queue:
            self.__result_queue.put(None)
            if wait:
                self.__result_handler.join()
            self.__result_queue.close()
            self.__result_queue = None

Let's see if it works:

$ python ptpe.py
doing: 0
ok: [0]
doing: 1
ok: [1]
doing: 2
ok: [4]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "concurrent/futures/_base.py", line 317, in _result_or_cancel
    return fut.result(timeout)
AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'result'

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'cancel'

Yay, the results are making it to the handler!

The error happens because instead of returning a Future, our submit() returns the result of _submit(), which is always None.

Fine, we'll make our own futures #

But submit() must return a future, so we make our own:

    def __init__(self, max_threads=None, initializer=None, initargs=()):
        # ...
        self.__tasks = {}
        # ...

    def submit(self, fn, *args, **kwargs):
        outer = concurrent.futures.Future()
        task_id = id(outer)
        self.__tasks[task_id] = outer

        outer.set_running_or_notify_cancel()
        inner = super().submit(_submit, task_id, fn, *args, **kwargs)

        return outer

In order to map results to their futures, we can use a unique identifier; the id() of the outer future should do, since it is unique for the object's lifetime.

We pass the id to _submit(), then to _put_result() as an attribute on the future, and finally back in the queue with the result:

def _submit(task_id, fn, *args, **kwargs):
    task = _executor.submit(fn, *args, **kwargs)
    task.task_id = task_id
    task.add_done_callback(_put_result)

def _put_result(task):
    if exception := task.exception():
        _result_queue.put((task.task_id, False, exception))
    else:
        _result_queue.put((task.task_id, True, task.result()))

Back in the result handler, we find the maching future, and set the result accordingly:

    def __handle_results(self):
        for task_id, ok, result in iter(self.__result_queue.get, None):
            outer = self.__tasks.pop(task_id)
            if ok:
                outer.set_result(result)
            else:
                outer.set_exception(result)

And it works:

$ python ptpe.py
doing: 0
doing: 1
doing: 2
[0, 1, 4]

I mean, it really works:

>>> benchmark(ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(10, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 6.220
>>> benchmark(ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(20, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 3.397
>>> benchmark(ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(30, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 2.575
>>> benchmark(ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(40, initializer=init_client))
elapsed: 2.664

3.3x is not quite the 4 CPUs my laptop has, but it's pretty close, and much better than the 2.2x we got from processes alone.

Death becomes a problem #

I wonder what happens when a worker process dies.

For example, the initializer can fail:

>>> executor = ProcessPoolExecutor(initializer=divmod, initargs=(0, 0))
>>> executor.submit(int).result()
Exception in initializer:
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool: A process in the process pool was terminated abruptly while the future was running or pending.

...or a worker can die some time later, which we can help along with a custom timer:⁶

@contextmanager
def terminate_child(interval=1):
    threading.Timer(interval, psutil.Process().children()[-1].terminate).start()
    yield

>>> executor = ProcessPoolExecutor(initializer=init_client)
>>> benchmark(executor, timer=terminate_child)
[ one second later ]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool: A process in the process pool was terminated abruptly while the future was running or pending.

Now let's see our executor:

>>> executor = ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(30, initializer=init_client)
>>> benchmark(executor, timer=terminate_child)
[ one second later ]
[ ... ]
[ still waiting ]
[ ... ]
[ hello? ]

If the dead worker is not around to send back results, its futures never get completed, and map() keeps waiting until the end of time, when the expected behavior is to detect when this happens, and fail all pending tasks with BrokenProcessPool.

Before we do that, though, let's address a more specific issue.

If map() hasn't finished submitting tasks when the worker dies, inner fails with BrokenProcessPool, which right now we're ignoring entirely. While we don't need to do anything about it in particular because it gets covered by handling the general case, we should still propagate all errors to the outer task anyway.

    def submit(self, fn, *args, **kwargs):
        # ...
        inner = super().submit(_submit, task_id, fn, *args, **kwargs)
        inner.task_id = task_id
        inner.add_done_callback(self.__handle_inner)

        return outer

    def __handle_inner(self, inner):
        task_id = inner.task_id
        if exception := inner.exception():
            if outer := self.__tasks.pop(task_id, None):
                outer.set_exception(exception)

This fixes the case where a worker dies almost instantly:

>>> executor = ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(30, initializer=init_client)
>>> benchmark(executor, timer=lambda: terminate_child(0))
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool: A process in the process pool was terminated abruptly while the future was running or pending.

For the general case, we need to check if the executor is broken – but how? We've already decided we don't want to depend on internals, so we can't use Process​Pool​Executor.​​_broken. Maybe we can submit a dummy task and see if it fails instead:

    def __check_broken(self):
        try:
            super().submit(int).cancel()
        except concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor as e:
            return type(e)(str(e))
        except RuntimeError as e:
            if 'shutdown' not in str(e):
                raise
        return None

Using it is a bit involved, but not completely awful:

    def __handle_results(self):
        last_broken_check = time.monotonic()

        while True:
            now = time.monotonic()
            if now - last_broken_check >= .1:
                if exc := self.__check_broken():
                    break
                last_broken_check = now

            try:
                value = self.__result_queue.get(timeout=.1)
            except queue.Empty:
                continue

            if not value:
                return

            task_id, ok, result = value
            if outer := self.__tasks.pop(task_id, None):
                if ok:
                    outer.set_result(result)
                else:
                    outer.set_exception(result)

        while self.__tasks:
            try:
                _, outer = self.__tasks.popitem()
            except KeyError:
                break
            outer.set_exception(exc)

When there's a steady stream of results coming in, we don't want to check too often, so we enforce a minimum delay between checks. When there are no results coming in, we want to check regularly, so we use the Queue.get() timeout to avoid waiting forever. If the check fails, we break out of the loop and fail the pending tasks. Like so:

>>> executor = ProcessThreadPoolExecutor(30, initializer=init_client)
>>> benchmark(executor, timer=terminate_child)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool: A child process terminated abruptly, the process pool is not usable anymore

So, yeah, I think we're done. Here's the final executor and benchmark code.

Some features left as an exercise for the reader:

• providing a ThreadPoolExecutor initializer
• using other start methods
• shutdown()'s cancel_futures

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Bonus: free threading #

You may have heard people being excited about the experimental free threading support added in Python 3.13, which allows running Python code on multiple CPUs.

And for good reason:

$ python3.13t
Python 3.13.2 experimental free-threading build
>>> from concurrent.futures import *
>>> from bench import *
>>> init_client()
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(30))
elapsed: 8.224
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(40))
elapsed: 6.193
>>> benchmark(ThreadPoolExecutor(120))
elapsed: 2.323

3.6x over to the GIL version, with none of the shenanigans in this article!

Alas, packages with extensions need to be updated to support it:

>>> import psutil
zsh: segmentation fault  python3.13t

...but the ecosystem is slowly catching up.

1. At least, all we can use for pure-Python code. I‍/‍O always releases the global interpreter lock, and so do some extension modules. ^[return]

2. The psutil documentation for memory_full_info() explains the difference quite nicely and links to further resources, because good libraries educate. ^[return]

3. You may have to run Python as root to get the USS of child processes. ^[return]

4. And no, asyncio is not a solution, since the event loop runs in a single thread, so you'd still need to run one event loop per CPU in dedicated processes. ^[return]

5. Check out nilp0inter/threadedprocess for an idea of what that looks like. ^[return]

6. pkill -fn '[Pp]ython' would've done it too, but it gets tedious if you do it a lot, and it's a different command on Windows. ^[return]

April 21, 2025 04:43 PM UTC

Real Python

Shallow vs Deep Copying of Python Objects

Python’s assignment statements don’t copy objects as they do in some other programming languages. Instead, they create bindings between your variable names and objects. For immutable objects, this distinction usually doesn’t matter. However, when you work with mutable objects or containers of mutable items, you may need to create explicit copies or “clones” of these objects.

By the end of this tutorial, you’ll understand that:

• Shallow copying creates a new object but references the same nested objects, leading to shared changes.
• Deep copying recursively duplicates all objects, ensuring full independence from the original.
• Python’s copy module provides the copy() function for shallow copies and deepcopy() for deep copies.
• Custom classes can implement .__copy__() and .__deepcopy__() for specific copying behavior.
• Assignment in Python binds variable names to objects without copying, unlike some lower-level languages.

Explore the nuances of copying objects in Python and learn how to apply these techniques to manage mutable data structures effectively.

Get Your Code: Click here to download the free sample code that you’ll use to learn about shallow vs deep copying in Python.

Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Shallow vs Deep Copying of Python Objects” quiz. You’ll receive a score upon completion to help you track your learning progress:

---

Interactive Quiz

Shallow vs Deep Copying of Python Objects

In this quiz, you'll test your understanding of Python's copy module, which provides tools for creating shallow and deep copies of objects. This knowledge is crucial for managing complex, mutable data structures safely and effectively.

Getting the Big Picture of Object Copying

Copying an object means creating its exact duplicate in memory. While there are many good reasons for doing so, at the end of the day, it allows you to modify the cloned objects independently of each other.

For example, a getter method may return sensitive information like the balance of someone’s bank account. To prevent unauthorized modifications of the bank account’s state, whether accidental or intentional, you’ll typically return a copy of the original data as a defensive programming measure. That way, you’ll have two separate objects safely representing the same piece of information.

Sometimes, you may need to work with multiple snapshots of the same data. In 3D computer graphics, transformations like rotation and scaling rely on matrix multiplication to update a model’s vertices. Rather than permanently changing the original model, you can duplicate its vertices and apply transformations to the copy. This will allow you to animate the model in a non-destructive way.

The following section provides an overview of the fundamental concepts and challenges associated with object copying in general. If you’d like to jump straight to copying objects in Python, then feel free to skip ahead.

Scalar vs Composite Types

In programming, objects can be classified into two broad categories of data types:

1. Scalar
2. Composite

Scalar data types represent simple, indivisible values that can’t be decomposed into smaller parts, much like atoms were once thought to be. Examples of scalars in Python include numbers, dates, and UUID-type identifiers:

Python

>>> from datetime import date
>>> from uuid import uuid4
>>> numbers = 42, 3.14, 3 + 2j
>>> dates = date.today(), date(1991, 2, 20)
>>> ids = uuid4(), uuid4(), uuid4()

Copied!

Each of these objects holds a single value representing a basic unit of data. By combining these fundamental building blocks, you can create more complex data structures.

Composite data types, on the other hand, are containers made up of other elements. Some of them are merely collections of scalar values, while others contain other composites or both, forming a complex hierarchy of objects:

Python

>>> import array
>>> audio_frames = array.array("h", [2644, 2814, 3001])
>>> audio_data = (
...     ("PCM", 2, 44100, 16),
...     [
...         (15975, 28928),
...         (-86, 15858),
...         (31999, -3),
...     ]
... )

Copied!

In this case, the "h" argument in the array.array() call specifies that the array will store numbers as two-byte signed integers. As you can see, a Python array aggregates scalar numbers into a flat sequence, whereas a list and tuple can contain deeply nested structures arranged in a particular way.

Note: Python types can sometimes fall into a gray area. For example, strings have a dual nature, as they’re technically sequences of characters. At the same time, they behave like scalars in specific contexts because they don’t allow element-wise operations—you must treat them as a whole.

These two categories of data types are closely related to the concept of object mutability, which you’ll learn more about now.

Mutable vs Immutable Objects

In high-level programming languages like Java and JavaScript, scalar types typically represent read-only values that can’t change over time. Such objects don’t allow in-place state mutation during their lifetime. So, if you want to modify a scalar value, then your only option is to disregard it and create another instance with a different value. In contrast, composite types can be either mutable or immutable, depending on their implementation.

Note: Immutable types have several advantages, including thread safety and improved memory efficiency, as they let you reuse objects without copying. On the other hand, when performance is vital, mutable types can reduce the overhead associated with object creation, especially when you tend to modify your objects frequently.

Read the full article at https://realpython.com/python-copy/ »

[ Improve Your Python With 🐍 Python Tricks 💌 – Get a short & sweet Python Trick delivered to your inbox every couple of days. >> Click here to learn more and see examples ]

April 21, 2025 02:00 PM UTC

Quiz: Shallow vs Deep Copying of Python Objects

In this quiz, you’ll test your understanding of Shallow vs Deep Copying of Python Objects.

By working through this quiz, you’ll revisit the concepts of shallow and deep copying, and how they affect mutable objects in Python.

[ Improve Your Python With 🐍 Python Tricks 💌 – Get a short & sweet Python Trick delivered to your inbox every couple of days. >> Click here to learn more and see examples ]

April 21, 2025 12:00 PM UTC

Talk Python to Me

#502: Django Ledger: Accounting with Python

Do you or your company need accounting software? Well, there are plenty of SaaS products out there that you can give your data to. but maybe you also really like Django and would rather have a foundation to build your own accounting system exactly as you need for your company or your product. On this episode, we're diving into Django Ledger, created by Miguel Sanda, which can do just that.<br/> <br/> <strong>Episode sponsors</strong><br/> <br/> <a href='https://talkpython.fm/auth0'>Auth0</a><br> <a href='https://talkpython.fm/training'>Talk Python Courses</a><br/> <br/> <h2 class="links-heading">Links from the show</h2> <div><strong>Miguel Sanda on Twitter</strong>: <a href="https://x.com/elarroba?featured_on=talkpython" target="_blank" >@elarroba</a><br/> <strong>Miguel on Mastodon</strong>: <a href="https://fosstodon.org/@elarroba" target="_blank" >@elarroba@fosstodon.org</a><br/> <strong>Miguel on GitHub</strong>: <a href="https://github.com/elarroba?featured_on=talkpython" target="_blank" >github.com</a><br/> <br/> <strong>Django Ledger on Github</strong>: <a href="https://github.com/arrobalytics/django-ledger?featured_on=talkpython" target="_blank" >github.com</a><br/> <strong>Django Ledger Discord</strong>: <a href="https://discord.gg/c7PZcbYgrc?featured_on=talkpython" target="_blank" >discord.gg</a><br/> <br/> <strong>Get Started with Django MongoDB Backend</strong>: <a href="https://www.mongodb.com/docs/languages/python/django-mongodb/current/get-started/?featured_on=talkpython" target="_blank" >mongodb.com</a><br/> <strong>Wagtail CMS</strong>: <a href="https://wagtail.org/?featured_on=talkpython" target="_blank" >wagtail.org</a><br/> <strong>Watch this episode on YouTube</strong>: <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eM170jyjbu8" target="_blank" >youtube.com</a><br/> <strong>Episode transcripts</strong>: <a href="https://talkpython.fm/episodes/transcript/502/django-ledger-accounting-with-python" target="_blank" >talkpython.fm</a><br/> <br/> <strong>--- Stay in touch with us ---</strong><br/> <strong>Subscribe to Talk Python on YouTube</strong>: <a href="https://talkpython.fm/youtube" target="_blank" >youtube.com</a><br/> <strong>Talk Python on Bluesky</strong>: <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/talkpython.fm" target="_blank" >@talkpython.fm at bsky.app</a><br/> <strong>Talk Python on Mastodon</strong>: <a href="https://fosstodon.org/web/@talkpython" target="_blank" ><i class="fa-brands fa-mastodon"></i>talkpython</a><br/> <strong>Michael on Bluesky</strong>: <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/mkennedy.codes?featured_on=talkpython" target="_blank" >@mkennedy.codes at bsky.app</a><br/> <strong>Michael on Mastodon</strong>: <a href="https://fosstodon.org/web/@mkennedy" target="_blank" ><i class="fa-brands fa-mastodon"></i>mkennedy</a><br/></div>

April 21, 2025 08:00 AM UTC

Python Bytes

#429 Nitpicking Python

<strong>Topics covered in this episode:</strong><br> <ul> <li><strong><a href="https://github.com/hcengineering/platform?featured_on=pythonbytes">Huly</a></strong></li> <li><a href="https://www.thecvefoundation.org/?featured_on=pythonbytes"><strong>CVE Foundation</strong></a> formed to take over CVE program from MITRE</li> <li><strong><a href="https://www.drawdb.app/?featured_on=pythonbytes">drawdb</a></strong></li> <li><strong><a href="https://blog.edward-li.com/tech/advanced-python-features/?featured_on=pythonbytes">14 Advanced Python Features</a></strong></li> <li><strong>Extras</strong></li> <li><strong>Joke</strong></li> </ul><a href='https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddnRex0fsNw' style='font-weight: bold;'data-umami-event="Livestream-Past" data-umami-event-episode="429">Watch on YouTube</a><br> <p><strong>About the show</strong></p> <p>Sponsored by Posit Workbench: <a href="https://pythonbytes.fm/workbench">pythonbytes.fm/workbench</a></p> <p><strong>Connect with the hosts</strong></p> <ul> <li>Michael: <a href="https://fosstodon.org/@mkennedy"><strong>@mkennedy@fosstodon.org</strong></a> <strong>/</strong> <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/mkennedy.codes?featured_on=pythonbytes"><strong>@mkennedy.codes</strong></a> <strong>(bsky)</strong></li> <li>Brian: <a href="https://fosstodon.org/@brianokken"><strong>@brianokken@fosstodon.org</strong></a> <strong>/</strong> <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/brianokken.bsky.social?featured_on=pythonbytes"><strong>@brianokken.bsky.social</strong></a></li> <li>Show: <a href="https://fosstodon.org/@pythonbytes"><strong>@pythonbytes@fosstodon.org</strong></a> <strong>/</strong> <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/pythonbytes.fm"><strong>@pythonbytes.fm</strong></a> <strong>(bsky)</strong></li> </ul> <p>Join us on YouTube at <a href="https://pythonbytes.fm/stream/live"><strong>pythonbytes.fm/live</strong></a> to be part of the audience. Usually <strong>Monday</strong> at 10am PT. Older video versions available there too.</p> <p>Finally, if you want an artisanal, hand-crafted digest of every week of the show notes in email form? Add your name and email to <a href="https://pythonbytes.fm/friends-of-the-show">our friends of the show list</a>, we'll never share it.</p> <p><strong>Michael #1:</strong> <a href="https://github.com/hcengineering/platform?featured_on=pythonbytes">Huly</a></p> <ul> <li>All-in-One Project Management Platform (alternative to Linear, Jira, Slack, Notion, Motion) </li> <li>If you're primarily interested in self-hosting Huly without the intention to modify or contribute to its development, please use <a href="https://github.com/hcengineering/huly-selfhost?featured_on=pythonbytes">huly-selfhost</a>.</li> <li>Manage your tasks efficiently with Huly's bidirectional GitHub synchronization. Use Huly as an advanced front-end for GitHub Issues and GitHub Projects.</li> <li>Connect every element of your workflow to build a dynamic knowledge base.</li> <li>Everything you need for productive team work: Team Planner • Project Management • Virtual Office • Chat • Documents • Inbox</li> <li>Self hosting as a service: <a href="https://elest.io/?featured_on=pythonbytes"><strong>elest.io</strong></a></li> </ul> <p><strong>Brian #2:</strong> <a href="https://www.thecvefoundation.org/?featured_on=pythonbytes"><strong>CVE Foundation</strong></a> formed to take over CVE program from MITRE</p> <ul> <li>Back story: <a href="https://arstechnica.com/security/2025/04/crucial-cve-flaw-tracking-database-narrowly-avoids-closure-to-dhs-cuts/?featured_on=pythonbytes">CVE, global source of cybersecurity info, was hours from being cut by DHS</a> <ul> <li>The 25-year-old CVE program, an essential part of global cybersecurity, is cited in nearly any discussion or response to a computer security issue.</li> <li>CVE was at real risk of closure after its contract was set to expire on April 16.</li> <li>The nonprofit MITRE runs CVE on a contract with the DHS.</li> <li>A letter last Tuesday sent Tuesday by Yosry Barsoum, vice president of MITRE, gave notice of the potential halt to operations.</li> <li>Another possible victim of the current administration.</li> </ul></li> <li><a href="https://www.thecvefoundation.org/?featured_on=pythonbytes">CVE Foundation Launched to Secure the Future of the CVE Program</a> <ul> <li>CVE Board members have spent the past year developing a strategy to transition CVE to a dedicated, non-profit foundation. The new CVE Foundation will focus solely on continuing the mission of delivering high-quality vulnerability identification and maintaining the integrity and availability of CVE data for defenders worldwide.</li> <li>Over the coming days, the Foundation will release more information about its structure, transition planning, and opportunities for involvement from the broader community.</li> </ul></li> </ul> <p><strong>Michael #3:</strong> <a href="https://www.drawdb.app/?featured_on=pythonbytes">drawdb</a></p> <ul> <li>Free and open source, simple, and intuitive database design editor, data-modeler, and SQL generator.</li> <li>Great drag-drop relationship manager</li> <li>Define your DB visually, export as SQL create scripts</li> <li>Or import existing SQL to kickstart the diagramming.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Brian #4:</strong> <a href="https://blog.edward-li.com/tech/advanced-python-features/?featured_on=pythonbytes">14 Advanced Python Features</a></p> <ul> <li>Edward Li</li> <li>Picking some favorites <ul> <li><a href="https://blog.edward-li.com/tech/advanced-python-features/?utm_source=pocket_shared#1-typing-overloads">1. Typing Overloads</a></li> <li><a href="https://blog.edward-li.com/tech/advanced-python-features/?utm_source=pocket_shared#2-keyword-only-and-positional-only-arguments">2. Keyword-only and Positional-only Arguments</a></li> <li><a href="https://blog.edward-li.com/tech/advanced-python-features/?utm_source=pocket_shared#9-python-nitpicks">9. Python Nitpicks</a> <ul> <li>For-else statements</li> <li>Walrus operator</li> <li>Short Circuit Evaluation</li> <li>Operator Chaining</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> </ul> <p><strong>Extras</strong> </p> <p>Michael:</p> <ul> <li><a href="https://blog.thunderbird.net/2025/04/thundermail-and-thunderbird-pro-services/?featured_on=pythonbytes">Thunderbird send / other firefox things</a>.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Joke:</strong> <a href="https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=43681752&featured_on=pythonbytes">Python Tariffs</a></p> <ul> <li>Thanks <a href="https://bsky.app/profile/wagenrace.bsky.social/post/3lmtps57oes2f?featured_on=pythonbytes">wagenrace</a></li> <li>Thanks <a href="https://campfire.whereismytribe.net/o/d3f2b6e1dd11413d98a883e1c209ae78?featured_on=pythonbytes">Campfire Tales</a></li> </ul>

April 21, 2025 08:00 AM UTC

April 20, 2025

ListenData

How to Use Gemini API in Python

In this tutorial, you will learn how to use Google's Gemini AI model through its API in Python.

Follow the steps below to access the Gemini API and then use it in python.

1. Visit Google AI Studio website.
2. Sign in using your Google account.
3. Create an API key.
4. Install the Google AI Python library for the Gemini API using the command below :
   

   pip install google-genai

   .

April 20, 2025 10:15 PM UTC

TechBeamers Python

Matplotlib Practice Online: Free Exercises

📝 Check out a comprehensive set of Matplotlib exercises and practice with our Online Matplotlib Compiler. This library is mainly used for data visualization in Python. From this tutorial, you will get some idea about – how to analyze trends, build machine learning models, and explore datasets. What is Matplotlib? Matplotlib is famous for its […]

Source

April 20, 2025 07:13 PM UTC

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